Investigating the Role of Sex and Gender in Osteoporosis

Abstract

Osteoporosis, characterized by reduced bone mineral density (BMD), disproportionately affects postmenopausal women due to estrogen deficiency. However, men and underrepresented groups also face significant risks, often underdiagnosed and undertreated. This review explores the role of sex and gender in osteoporosis, examining hormonal regulation, age-related changes, genetic predispositions, and social factors such as physical activity and nutrition. While estrogen decline drives bone loss in women, hypogonadism and low estradiol levels are key factors in men. Gendered health disparities, underrepresentation in research, and inadequate treatment access contribute to worse outcomes in men. Public health initiatives and equitable screening are critical for addressing these gaps and improving bone health across populations.