What Is a Ἰουδαῖος? A Linguistic Investigation of Ἰουδαῖος’s Meaning and John’s Motivation behind his Peculiar Modulation

Abstract

This study addresses the questions, What is a Ἰουδαῖος? and Why John’s Ἰουδαῖοι?, by employing a linguistic methodology to investigate both the systemic meaning potential of Ἰουδαῖος and the Evangelist’s motivation behind its distinctive modulation throughout his Gospel. Drawing on a register-balanced corpus of Hellenistic Greek texts, the research abstracts the term’s context-independent meaning—termed "Judahness"—and analyzes how this meaning potential is pragmatically realized in John’s narrative. Rather than assuming a single, fixed meaning governs all instances, this study demonstrates that Ἰουδαῖος exhibits great contextual adaptability, with its sense, referent, and appraisal modulated according to the Evangelist’s rhetorical and theological aims. In terms of referent, Ἰουδαῖος identifies a broad spectrum of individuals and subgroups within the larger group known as “the Jews,” from religious leaders to the Jewish crowd, and even specific individuals, from those who oppose Jesus to those who believe in him. Regarding appraisal, the use of Ἰουδαῖος in the Gospel shows diverse tones: sometimes carrying negative connotations, suggesting opposition or skepticism toward Jesus; at other times, imbued with positive connotations, indicating acceptance or belief; and in many instances, used neutrally, without any particular emotional charge. This pragmatic flexibility challenges reductive interpretations of the Gospel’s portrayal of the Ἰουδαῖοι and resists claims of uniformity in John’s depiction. Instead, the study argues that John’s usage is motivated by a twofold purpose: first, an evangelistic intent to reach a diverse Jewish audience; and second, an apologetic concern to demonstrate that Jesus fulfills all Jewish messianic hopes. This nuanced application of Ἰουδαῖος thus serves not only to convey John’s theological message but also to engage his intended readers in a discourse about identity, faith, and the true essence of Judaism as seen through the lens of Jesus’ messiahship.